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Answer:
Definition:""Philosophy"_Science_Of_Wisdom
Philosophy as defined by ancient thinkers is the Science of wisdom.
It embraces all branches of knowledge, hence a philosopher in
the time of the Greeks was recognized as a truly wise man.
Greek
Philosophy
Greek philosophy had become dead in Europe and its teaching was
banned by the Church as its knowledge made people inactive and
irreligious. The Arabs revived Greek philosophy and it was through
Kindi, Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes that the West learnt about
Aristotle, Plato and Socrates. Arabian philosophy began with the
warm reception of Greek philosophy in Arabia, when it had vanished
from its original soil, and whilst western Europe was still too
crude and ignorant to be its home.
Arabian Philosophy
Arabian
philosophy at the outset of its career in the 9th AD century was
able without difficulty to take possession of these resources
for speculative thought which Latins had barely achieved at the
close of the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering
the Aristotelian Logic from the commentaries and verses of Boethius."
Al
Kindi, Farabi and Averroes were three of the numerous "philosophers"
of Muslim science. I use the quotes to indicate that there is
actually some problem with their "philosophy." You see
the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, peace be upon him, are
quite clear in mentioning that Muslims need nothing more than
these two sources of knowledge for their science and wisdom (note
the definition on the left panel). These well known "thinkers"
in Islam brought about a new era in which mankind was left to
make up his own mind in how he would like to look at things, especially
when it came to the nature of the deity (Allah). The concept that
a man could be "perfect" or "god-like" is
simply against the very essence of Islam according to the Quran
and the teachings of Muhammad, peace be upon him. He did not teach
that he was perfect and flawless as some of contended. Rather,
he emphasized that in fact, he was a human just as the rest of
us. The "free thinkers," Sufis, philosophers and secularists
all share a common denominator; the deviate far from main line
Islam to satisfy their own faultering egos.
Secularism and philosophy are the first signs of the scholars
leaving the simple beauty and magnificence of Islam.
Having asserted my own understanding according to whatever small
insight I may or may not have regarding this field, I now offer
you the findings of the modern world and opinions according to
those who support this "philosophy."
Let
us start with the Abbasid Caliphate, also known
as the Abbasid Dynasty or Abbasid Empire (take your pick). The
Abbasid rule was influenced by Persian culture as it provided
the most congenial atmosphere for the development of learning
especially philosophy, Secular philosophy found its first entrance
into the Muslim world through the Persian administrators of the
early Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliph, Harun-ar-Rashid
(this ruler was famous and well known for his unusual cruelty
and nasty temper) had some of the works of Aristotle translated
into Arabic for the first time. His successor Mamun-ar-Rashid
founded the well-known Darul Hukama (House of Wisdom) where the
translation of books from foreign languages into Arabic was made
by eminent translators who were employed on handsome salaries
by the talented Caliph. His great patronage of learning attracted
men of letters from all parts of the world who were engaged in
translation and research work. The translation of the works of
Aristotle and Plato paved the way for the growth of Islamic philosophy.
The harmonization of Greek philosophy with Islam was started by
Al-Kindi, continued by Farabi and was completed by Ibn Sina and
Ibn Rushd. Of the great Muslim philosophers Al-Kindi belonged
to Basrah, Farabi, Ghazali and. Ibn Sina hailed from Turkistan
and Persia, while Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja and Ibn Tufail who rivaled
their Eastern counterparts were natives of Muslim Spain.
Al-Kindi
(Died / 873 AD), considered by some to be the greatest philosopher
of the Arab race, is known as the "Philosopher of
the Arabs." He translated and wrote commentaries
on a number of works by Aristotle. Being a natural philosopher
he elaborately discussed the doctrine of soul and intelligence.
The divine intelligence is the cause of the existence of the world.
According to him, the world as a whole is the work of an extremely
active cause, the divine intelligence, whose activity is transmitted
in many ways from above to the world. Between God and the world
of bodies is the world of soul, which created the world of Heavenly
spheres, In so far as the human soul is combined with the body,
it is dependent on the influence of heavenly bodies, but in its
spiritual origin and being it is free. Both immortality and freedom
could be attained in the world of intelligence. It was in De Intellectu,
the Latin translation of Al-Kindi's philosophical work, that the
West discovered for the first time the doctrine of intelligence.
Towards the close
of the 10th century AD there flourished in Basrah a Philosophical
Society known as Ikhwan-al-Safa (Brethren of Purity). They tried
unsuccessfully to reconcile religion with science. Their encyclopedic
work consisting of 51 treatises contain the idea of goodness and
moral perfection. They had a leaning towards Pythagorean speculations.
Abu Masr Farabi (d/950 A. D.) whose philosophical system according
to George Sarton, 'Is a syncretism of Platoism, Aristotelianism
and Sufism," was the founder of the Turkish School of Philosophy.
He was an exponent of Neo-Platonic Philosophy, a system which
was originated by Al-Kindi and was developed by Ibn Sina. There
is a marked difference between the philosophical approach of Farabi,
which is deductive, rational and abstract and that of Zakariya
Razi which is inductive, experimental and concrete. The two systems
in fact present two sides of the same picture Razi being a naturalist
emphasized the experimental side while Farabi having been inclined
towards mysticism looked to the speculative and abstract side.
In Ibn Sina these two systems are reunited though Ibn Sina is
more methodical in his approach. The difference between Farabi
and Ibn Sina is more pronounced on the question of the immortality
of the soul which is accepted by the former and rejected by the
latter. Like Plato, Farabi is a mystical thinker, whose reasoning
finally leads him to mysticism and metaphysics. He was a Savant
in the true sense of the word, and led a life of minimum wants.
With him like all other mystics contemplation dominated action.
He has tried to give philosophical and rational explanations of
such intricate religious problems as prophecy, inspiration, heavens,
destiny and Celestial Throne. Prophecy according to him is a form
of moral perfection rather than an innate gift. In this way he
is recognized as the founder of philosophical theology, which
later on found its great exponent in Fakhruddin Razi. He was also
the first to preach practical morality by recognizing that the
faculty of discerning good from evil is possessed by oneself.
Zakariya Al-Razi
(865--925 A. D.) the eminent physician and scientist of Islam
composed a number of metaphysical, philosophical and ethical works
which have perished and only a few pieces are still available.
Al-Razi professes the existence of five eternal principles in
metaphysics--namely the Creator, the soul, matter, time and space,
In spite of his pessimistic outlook in metaphysics he is opposed
to asceticism and believes in working for the welfare of the people.
Like Aristotle he does not blame human passion but only its excessive
indulgence. He believed in the evolution of scientific and philosophical
knowledge and in this respect he is much ahead of his predecessors.
Ibn Sina (980--1037
A. D.) the most illustrious name amongst the oriental Muslims,
whose rational philosophy tried to explain religious dogmas in
the light of reason and thus invited severe criticism from Imam
Ghazali. Like his predecessors he tried to harmonize abstract
philosophy with religion. His main philosophical works are Kitab-as-Shifa,
(The Book of Recovery), Al-Najat (The Salvation) and The Isharat
(Instructions). His Kitab-as-Shifa, dealing with metaphysics,
physics and logic had deeply influenced Western as well as Eastern
philosophy. His philosophical works reflected a conflict between
materialism and idealism. He expounded the philosophical doctrines
of Farabi and followed him in logic and epistemology. He has more
clearly brought out the dualism of mind and matter, God and the
world. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is more definitely
laid down by him. His philosophy brings out his scientific and
progressive outlook. His compromise with Muslim theology did not
find favor in orthodox circles and his philosophical works were
burned in Baghdad. He explained the moving, changing and developing
state of nature. His philosophy is the necessary link between
the philosophy of Farabi and Ghazali on one hand and that of Ibn
Rushd (Averroes) on the other.
Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali
(1058-1111 A. D.) the great Muslim theologian and philosopher
realized that the study of secular philosophy had resulted in
an indifference towards religion. He renounced the life of pleasure
and wandered in the Islamic world in search of mental peace. The
conflict which had started in him gave him no rest and was fully
brought out in his monumental work Ihyaal Ulum, which ranks amongst
the greatest ethical works of Islam. He attacked the rationalistic
and materialistic views of his predecessors including that of
Ibn Sina and ultimately found solace in mysticism. His severe
criticism of materialistic philosophy was afterwards answered
by Ibn Rushd (Averroes). In Islam the theological system entrenched
itself towards the end of the 12th century A. D. in the narrow
orthodoxy of the Isharites. The entire ethical philosophy of Al-Ghazali
rests on the foundation of mysticism. He had himself gone through
the different phases of worldly life--namely scholastic discussions,
the pride of high office, popularity among the people and the
pomp and wealth. He had personally experienced the effects of
such contacts on one's character. He has described these experiences
in his immortal Ihyaal Ulum. His writings started a school of
religious philosophy and influenced such outstanding thinkers
as Maulana Rum, Shaikhul Ashraq, Ibn Rushd and Shah Waliullah.
Al-Ghazali was mainly responsible for infusing mysticism into
Persia and directing it into the right channels. He tried to reconcile
the tenets of Islam with the teaching of the prevailing philosophy
and science but not in a purely rational way as done by Farabi
and Ibn Sina. His Ihyaal Ulum was widely read by Jews, Christians
and Muslims alike and influenced Thomas Aquinas and even Blaise
Pascal.
Ibn Rushd (1126--1198
A. D.) better known as Averroes in the West is undoubtedly the
greatest philosopher of Islam, Together with Ibn Masarra and Ibnul
Arabi, he Forms the trio of the great philosophers of Muslim Spain.
The first two were essentially mystics while the third (Averroes)
was a rationalist. He rose to be the greatest commentator of and
exponent of Aristotelian philosophy. It was through his commentaries
that the West learnt about Aristotle.
His Chief philosophical
work is Tahafut-alTahafut (The incoherence of the incoherence)
which was written in refutation of Al-Ghazali's work, Tahafut-al-Fahasifa
(The destruction of philosophy). The philosophical writings of
Averroes invited severe criticism and stirred up critical reactions
throughout the Islamic world. A strong refutation of Ibn Rushd's
arguments in Tahafut-al-Tahafut was made by a Turk, Mustafa Ibn
Yusuf al-Bursavi, commonly known as Khwaja Zada (d/1487-88 AD).
This once more established the strength of faith and the weakness
of human understanding. But contrary to Muslim reactions, Averroes
philosophical writings had a deep influence on Christian Europe.
Alfred Gillaume in his article on philosophy and theology in the
Legacy of Islam. writes that' "He (Averroes) belongs to Europe
and European thought rather than to the East. Averroism continued
to be a living factor in European thought until the birth of modern
experimental science, Latin is said to have preserved more than
one of Ibn Rushd's works which Arabic has lost."'
Regarding predestination,
Ibn Rushd maintained that man was neither the absolute master
of his destiny nor bound by fixed, immutable decrees. According
to him the truth lies in the middle, i.e., Al-Amr Bain ·
AL-Amrain. Human actions depend partly on free will and partly
on outside causes. These causes spring from the general laws of
nature--God alone knows their sequence. According to him man should
make the utmost effort to attain perfection by which he means,
complete identification with the alive intellect. This human perfection
can be attained through study, speculation and negation of desires-specially
those relating to senses.
This philosophy
was considered to be irreligious in Muslim Spain where the society
was formulated on true Arabic lines. Being a rational philosopher,
his ideas were incompatible with the religious sentiments of orthodox
Muslims and he was accused of being an atheist. But according
to Philip K. Hitti, 'He was a rationalist and claimed the right
to submit everything save the revealed dogmas of faith to the
judgment of reason, but he was not a freethinker or unbeliever.
His view of creation by God was evolutionary not a matter of days
but of eternity"."
Averroism had a
great influence on Europe. Jews became the greatest exponents
of Averroism in the West. In Southern France, the philosophical
thought was influenced by Averroists. At Oxford Averroes was known
as the great commentator and Bacon ranked him alongside Aristotle
and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Averroism continued to be taught in the
universities of Northern Italy including Padua which was its great
center. Other well-known philosophers of Muslim Spain were Ibn
Baija, Ibn Tufail and Ibnul Arabi. Ibn Bajja (d/1138 AD) known
as Avempace in the West has explained in his treatise Tadbir al-Mutawahhid
(The Regime of Solitary), how man unaided can attain union with
the active intellect. He considered that gradual perfection of
the human spirit through union with the Divine is the object of
philosophy. The Philosophus Antodiduclus of Ibn Tufail (d/ll85
AD) became a world classic.
Ibnul Arabi (1165--1240
A. D.) the greatest speculative genius of Islamic Sufism was born
in Murcia (Spain). According to Ibnul Arabi the divine power manifests
itself in the form of a perfect man which is of course, Muhammad
(Peace be on him). His writings on mysticism influenced not only
Persian and Turkish Sufi circles but also Duns Scots, Roger Bacon
and Raymond Lull. The greatest exponent of mysticism in the East
was Al-Suhrawardi (1191 AD).
Nasiruddin Toosi
(1201--74 AD) wrote a large number of philosophical, metaphysical
and theological treatises. In orthodox circles his fame chiefly
rests on these treatises. His Kitab al-Fasul dealing with metaphysics
was written in Persian, which was translated into Arabic by al-Jurjani.
His great philosophical work Tajrid al-dqaid (AI-KaEam) is his
most popular work on which a large number of commentaries have
been written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. His outstanding work
on ethics entitled, Ikhlaq-i-Naasiri (Nasirian Ethics) is one
of the best books on the subject and is still taught in Arab schools.
Islam
had developed a Religious Philosophy of its own which is called
Ilm-ul-Kalaam or Science of the word. The secular and scholastic
philosophy receded into the background in the East after the vehement
criticism of such philosophy by Imam Ghazali. But the philosophical
and religious writings of Ghazali gave a fillip to religious philosophy
and especially to mysticism and produced such outstanding religious
philosophers as well as mystics as Fakhruddin Razi, Nasiruddin
Toosi, Fariduddin Attar, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, Ameer Khusro
and Dr. Iqbal. The development of Islamic philosophy, thus took
a new turn in which the later philosophers have made outstanding
contributions--both through Prose and Poetry.
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